A little teaser here.

Cheers!

Ev

Invaders, Rats, Rains, Filth and Crowded Places

Many historians and epidemiologists (people who study disease) believe that the plague most likely came to Europe from the Asian steppes after being brought there by the Mongols from the Himalayas.

Infected fleas that regurgitate infected blood back into their hosts through bites transmit the disease. The most abundant natural carrier of the disease is a flea-infested rat. But it didn’t help that the conditions in Europe were just right for the disease to take hold. Early accounts by historians and writers of the time put the origin point in China, India, and Asia in general (somewhere around 1331-1332).

By 1347, the plague had reached the Byzantine territories and Constantinople. From there, it headed straight for Europe. There are accounts of disease-ridden bodies and animal carcasses being thrown over defensive walls as an early form of germ warfare. But, more than likely, the plague probably found a foothold in Europe through natural interaction between people on well-traveled trade routes across land and water.

It did not help that conditions in Europe were just right for the plague to spread like wildfire. At the point that the plague was introduced into European territories, there had been years of torrential rains and flooding. The wet conditions most likely forced infected rodents into heavily populated human habitats. Most of the cities and town areas of Europe were filthy, crowded spaces where rodent populations thrived.

It was the perfect soup for the plague to thrive… And, it immediately tore down basic relationships of human society apart.

An Account by Nicephorus Gregoras (Scholar, c. 1359)

“During the second year, 1348, it invaded the Aegean Islands. Then it affected the Rhodesians, as well as the Cypriots and those colonizing the other islands. The calamity attacked men as well as women, rich and poor, old and young. To put matters simply, it did not spare those of any age of fortune. Several homes were emptied of all their inhabitants in one day or sometime in two. No one could help anyone else, not even the neighbors, or the family, or blood relations.”

John Aberth, The Black Death: The Great Mortality of 1348-1350, A Brief History with Documents, Bedford/St. Martin’s, Boston, New York, 2005

Christos S. Bartsocas, “Two Fourteenth-Century Greek Descriptions of the ‘Black Death,’” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 21 (1966): 395.



The Black Death, or Plague of Eurasia, is one of the best known pieces of creepy history in the modern world. And, sure, it is cool and creepy to look at the destruction that a disease can unleash on our world. The descriptions and artwork of disease, and the effects of disease are a fascinating subject that will easily draw in students. Disease is useful for showing overall societal mentalities and historical transitions in a way that is informative, connective, and accessible to a student who has little or no knowledge of the sixteenth century. In these studies, I look at disease as a basic formative structure in economics, politics and society, as well as viewing disease as informing religious beliefs, morality and ideas of the self.  I would hope that this would help anyone who is interested to have a better understanding of sixteenth century life and perhaps even a little insight into our own modern fears in the age of MRSA and HIV.

This first post is a passage from a 1593 treatise called A Defensative against the plague, in which the author, Simon Kellermaye, spells out what he believes are: first, a defense against “catching” the plague and second, what to do to cure yourself from the plague if you believe that you have become infected with it. Words in brackets […] have been spelled with their modern spelling to assist you in your reading. When reading it, it may be helpful to consider these issues: the impact that disease had on the community, the role of religion in interpreting and dealing with disease, the position of the individual in society and his view with regards to disease, the actual preventions and cures themselves.

"When I considered with myself (gentle Reader) the great [calamity], [misery], and most distressed state of our [Country], on which it hath pleased God to inflict the [heavy] scourge of his wrath, by imposing on them that [poisonous] infection the plague, I therefore (as one partaker of their [grief] and [sorrow]) seeing also the same [contagion] so generally dispersed throughout this land, and not finding [any] English author that hath to my content written the [means] how to preserve and keep us from the contagion thereof, have thought it good to publish this small treatise under the title and name of a defensative against the plague…There are three [principle] [means], how to prevent this contagious disease: the first and chiefest is to acknowledge our [manifold] [sins] and wickedness unto [almighty] God our heavenly father, with a [hearty] repentance and amendment of our former [sins] committed against his divine [majesty]. The second is to [fly] far off from the place infected, and as Rondoletius* sayth, not over [hastily] to return there [again], for fear of an afterclay (reoccurrence)…The third means consists chiefly in three [points], which are these: Order, Diet and [Physical] [helps]. For first you must have a care that your houses be kept clean and [sweet], not suffering any [foul] and filthy clothes or [stinking] things to remain in, nor about the same: and in [summer] season to deck your [windows], and [straw] your floors with sweet and wholesome herbs, flowers and leaves as [mints], [balm], Penny all, [Lavender], [thyme], {etc.}…and such like: your windows which stand toward the North and East, do you always keep open in the daytime, (if the [air] be clear and that no infected and [unsavory] smell be [near] the same) as fogs, dunghills, and such like, and every morning before you open either your doors or windows, as also in the evening when you go to bed, cause a good fire to be made in your chamber, and burn some [Odoriferous] or sweet perfume in the middle thereof {gives another list of herbs and leaves}, or such like, which you must always have [dried] in [readiness], and so in the fumes or smoke thereof, to breath and perfume the clothes which you are to [wear]."

*Rondoletius is a person unimportant to your reading of this passage; he is simply quoting him for purpose of authority.

Cheers!

Ev

In what ways did the ideas and beliefs of people concerning witches change through through the development of the trials?

I really believe that as things progressed people lost their stomach for executing old women and mothers, etc. The reality of so much death was tougher for them than living with a lax in their productive religious values. There is a great discussion on the role of women in the Klaits’ book on pg 125. It talks about the hierarchy of the subgroup of “women” within Puritan culture and the way that that found the light of day (publicly speaking) with the witch craze. In an odd way, this event empowered women while it simultaneously confirmed the worst suspicions about their “feeble and gullible nature.”  So, in the end, village men were able to use this as one more reason to “keep women in their place.”  Like mysticism in Middle Ages Europe the perceived ability of women to be able to somehow connect with the great emotional and unknown beyond was one of the only ways that women could gain public voice and power outside of their marginalized positions -- unfortunately, when things went wrong there were often dire consequences. Not to mention it supported an extremely voyeuristic tendency in the torturer and authorities and a woman’s body. Perhaps that is something you can investigate on your own later….I don’t think it is an appropriate subject at your level and school.

What factors lead to the end of the trials?

As I mention earlier, going after the high-ranking elites put a major halt on things. One of the most interesting things about the American trials was how long they went on and the area of land covered by essentially the same hysteria period. After the initial trial there were at least eighty-three trials between Mass. And Virginia from 1647 to 1691, 22 of which resulted in execution. Most were very small-scale variety like the English (not Germany) in Europe. Also since 1622 only 2 people had been executed for witchcraft in the English colonies (don’t forget--it was not the US just yet!). I also think that the community grew more and more callous towards charges of demonic influence as the trials went on. People knew that they could easily be next if they accidentally upset a neighbor. To accuse was to make oneself eligible to be accused -- it was a dangerous game and people knew it. Furthermore, the more the hysteria spread, the farther it was away from the original political and social problems of the small group it originated in. As outsiders became more and more involved, they were not Parris or anti-Parris, they just wanted such things to go away. In other words, the whole situation became diluted the further out from it origin. Outside judges and elite would not stand for being accused by some country bumpkin preacher.

How have the views toward witchcraft in society changed when comparing the time after the trials to the time before?

It is difficult to say. I think that within the time period, people still believed whole-heartedly in spooks, demons and ghosties. Yet, the people of Salem went through (I believe) some recognition that things went a little too far. At some point, they rationalized that anyone of them could be the next accused -- so why continue!?!  How has it changed in modern day? Yikes! I honestly believe that the unwashed masses still have an extremely high level of superstitious beliefs (look at McCarthyism in the mid-1900’s!) and that social pressures can distort fears and the unknown into hysteria that is connected to incredibly bad behavior and bad social choices. I don’t know, do you believe in bigfoot or UFO’s? A lot of people do! That belief does not necessarily make them crazy, just misguided. For further information on this in modern context I would refer you to a great book by Carl Sagen called The Demon Haunted World.

What are the views of people today concerning those involved in the trials?

Well, I think that I have answered this question inside my other questions. I tried to give you some information on what several modern scholars think about the subject…, which is a good indicator of the most recent scholarship on the subject. However, if you mean what does the everyday “Joe on the street” have to say? -- I haven’t a clue. Witchcraft goes through pop-culture phases and like Dracula or any other such subject, the scholarship tends not to mirror the opinion of the uninformed general public. At the release of  Blair Witch and Sleepy Hollow, or the Craft, interest is peaked in the subject but people like to keep their interest cursory and somewhat shallow , interested only in the “supernatural” elements of the subject. I must admit, I see no value in the supernatural side of this subject other than for it’s entertainment value…I certainly don’t believe in the mumbo jumbo side of witchcraft or the occult. I am, however, interested in the social, gender, and political phenomena that occurred and still do occur in situations of mass hysteria and fear

I hope you enjoyed this study as much as I did! I love research for new projects. It is so much fun to share it with all of you.

Cheers!

Ev

What were the common procedures taken when a person was put on trial for witchcraft?

 The three main women were collected and publicly questioned on March 1, 1692 at the village meeting house. Tibitua immediately confessed to dealings with the devil -- everyone else denied it. They were ordered held at Boston jail, which at the very least contributed to Sarah Osborne’s death of “natural causes” six weeks later…yeah right. Those who confessed, like Tibitua were actually eventually released! But women like Sarah Good, who admitted no wrongdoing, were among the first to be executed. She cursed her judges on the way to the gallows. By later June, six women had been tried, convicted, and put to death. The court was tribunal style with a judge sat center at the bench, the other judges flanking him. Witnesses were questioned in front of both the judges and villagers -- there was really no cross-examination to speak of and confessions were a matter of due course. The accusers were allowed free reign (to the point of grand silliness) during the trials and the accused were almost allowed no voice at all.  There had to be a confession or there could be no exoneration -- hence the execution of those who insisted upon their innocence. Cotton Mather, one of the original presiding judges helped to define the way these trials were conducted and handed the instructions down to new judges -- when those judges no longer agreed, things changed.  There is a great description from one of the trials on page 124 of Klaits’ book.

Who were some of the important figures in the time of the trials?

 Perhaps the most central figure was Reverend Samuel Parris (1692) start of the events. It was in his household that his daughter Elizabeth and Abigail started having “fits.”  He called Dr. William Griggs for medical advice (a trusted colleague) and was told that it was the “Evil Hand” put upon them. News of the girls “symptoms” were quickly spread around the village and other children started to experience many of the same behaviors…mass hysteria? A childish joke? Hardly. But it may have started out that way -- it is hard to tell.  The Indian slave in the household (Tibitua) was named as the girls chief tormentor. That was easy for them because she was probably the most complete outsider in their community -- a black West Indies woman in 18^th century Massachusettes? It must have been a sight! Then there was Sarah Good, a destitute beggar and Sara Osborne, an anti-Parris villager with a reputation for harboring outsiders (this was not cool back then). Outsiders were dangerous and threatening.  Concentration on a male witch figure is centered on anti- Parris villagers.

What were some of the significant cases that tookplace?

 It is easier to talk about the trials in some ways as an event (in such a brief paper) or set of events. On pages 120-127 of Klaits’ book, there is an interesting discussion on the trials and the psychology of the trials. Later in the same book is the psychology of  and affect of torture. Both brief and interesting overviews -- they would probably help you a great deal.  I think the most significance cases, sociologically and psychologically are the first cases centered around the Parris children (closest to the beginning and reasons of the trials period) and the cases at the end of the major trial period involving high ranking political figures and elders.

Why were they so important?

 The first and the last cases were important because they were closest to the source of the upheaval. It gives us a good origin point to discuss the culture and mindset of Salem village at the time. I think it is also significant that Parris’ ideology was so quickly spread through the actions of his children. This really helps solidify the thought that the local ministers and authorities already had in mind what was going on before it actually occurred. They were looking for the presence of the Devil and they found it…these elite had a deep and profound concern with the idea of Satan. Interestingly enough there are almost more books on the subject of Satan and demonology at the time than on Christianity and Godliness…hmmmm. I also think that some of the last accusations and trials really illuminate the reasons for the end of the hysteria. We see Parris and his followers, as well as like-minded people going after the elite in power -- power well beyond their reach I might add.  When the accusations turn to the governor’s (William Phips) wife, judges themselves, and high-ranking officials -- things stopped. Quickly.

(See Part four for the cultural ramifications of witchcraft and the Salem trials)

Cheers!

Ev

Many of these factors involved religious beliefs. What were some of the specific characteristics of

these beliefs?

The religious beliefs of the people at the time would be considered a form of extreme Protestantism nowadays. There was a strict and literal adherence to the Bible. These folks lived in a religiously governed community with extremely strict rules and the preacher had a lot of power.  The moral righteous Parris had already been campaigning against “capitalist cutthroats who meant to destroy the godly,”  before there was ever a witch craze. It was Parris’ daughter who started the whole thing -- could she have been influenced by her father’s quest and vendettas? It is hard to say for sure, but it looks fairly suspicious to me. It is hard to imagine, but if you were shunned for not following these rules and were outcast -- you could not survive one winter on your own.  The individual was highly dependant on the village for basic survival. According to author Joseph Klaits, “the patterns of Puritan upbringing in Massachusetts tended to produce a deep sense of personal sinfulness and an intense fear of damnation.” (120)That should put the religious fervor more into focus. [Joseph Klaits, Servants of Satan]

Where did these beliefs evolve from?

I think one of the most important factors here is actually the fact that, religiously speaking, these people connected personal wealth and success with being smiled upon by God.-- a very Puritanical (Calvinist?) view. Wealth on earth meant wealth in Heaven and Parris was really concerned as to how a “diabolical intervention could adequately explain the economic decline of his Godly flock.”  Lord knows they would not blame themselves!  I think religiously this type of view has a lot to do with the concept of “predetermination” in which God has already chosen his saved and we are all down here trying to figure out just who exactly that is. Can you imagine how tough it was to actually believe that because your neighbor had a better crop than you -- that God liked him better!!! But that is just what they thought. I wonder which football teams God really likes better -- perhaps then the opposing team would just stop trying to play…hmmmm

(coming up next - the procedures of trial) 

Cheers!

Ev

What was the social climate in New England at the time of the Salem Witch Trials?

 Well, many experts say that it was something like the McCarthy era later in twentieth-century America.  This group of people was highly interconnected -- they were tight knit not only as a social group, but as a religious group as well.  Because of their religious beliefs and social structure there were very few ways for them to vent frustrations over the smallest or largest problems.  Scholars now believe that in some ways this created kind of a pressure cooker atmosphere. There was a heightened sense of personal insecurity (both mentally and physically -- their own health and well-being, as well as social desires) and a raised level of suspicion towards one's neighbor. More recent research has lead to mapping of the areas affected by the "witch-craze" and there are definite political and tax boundaries between the factions of people that were in support of the minister Parris and those who were not.  However, even though there was this sense of general paranoia at the time, it has now been shown that many of the villagers at the time actually opposed the trials. The area closest to Salem town was radically anti-Parris and hence anti-trial and the average anti-Parris villager paid about 40 % more in tax money than those not opposed to him. hmmm. Could wealth and property have anything to do with this? I think most new research is showing that it most definitely does.  Parris was a failed businessman gone preacher --do you think that he could possibly have had old scores to settle? There is a great discussion on this around page 185 in Paul Boyer and Stephen Nissenbaum's book Salem Possessed. 

How did these factors lead to the persecution of the alleged witches?

 Again, I think that this points to the idea that there was wealth, power and land at stake here, as well as political and religious control over the community. If the Parris supporters were accusing anti-Parris factions of witchcraft, (and research shows this is where the highest concentration of accusers existed) then it stands to reason that in some ways there was a fight essentially between the "have's and the have not's."  The fight was merely housed in a rhetoric that the villagers understood. I also think that there are many interesting feminist issues here -- women gaining control and a voice in a public space where they were normally not allowed to have much power (especially in a public court room).  So it is my understanding that many of these issues boiled over in a language and climate that supported their coming into being (hence the craze and trials) so that this incredibly interconnected group of people had a way to vent many different frustrations that were connected with the political, wealth distribution, and even gender issues.  Remember, many experts today believe that if there were any delusions of devil worship, mental illness, witch hunts, etc. they most often are now attributed to have been formed in the minds of the prosecutors, not the minds of the accused.  Harm to neighbors, whether by curse or otherwise was taken extremely seriously -- but again one can trace such things to have originated in social changes more so than the actual presence of demonic possession or some such nonsense.  One must also take seriously the notion of “playacting” by the children involved  (once again another marginalized group within that society -- marginalized meaning essential without voice or power).  Remember, all across Europe and the western world at the time, it was the elite who were mainly concerned with demonic possession! They wanted to investigate it “scientifically” and were concerned with dealing with it in terms of personal interest and public safety. Most trials were an unfortunate mix of both prurient, voyeuristic, and social tendencies coupled with strict religious concern from the empowered elite.  There was no one single answer for it.

(Read part two for more on the role of religious beliefs and the witchcraft trials!)

Cheers!

Ev

*All images are from http://www2.iath.virginia.edu/salem/generic.html, a great academic site with more on the history of the Salem witchcraft trials.

Sweeny Todd is a fictional character from the 19th century genre that included the Frankenstein Monster, Dracula, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. He remains one of the most well known monsters of Victorian pop culture. One of the most unusual things about Mr. Todd is that he is a working class character - rather novel for the day. He first appeared in an anonymously penned novel entitled, The String of Pearls, as published in Edward Lloyd's, People's Periodical and Family Library (1846-47). Sweeny first appeared on stage at the Britannia Theater, Hoxton. The characters are very one-dimensional - typical of penny dreadfuls that were so popular at the time. 

Drawing public fascination from incidents and narratives of Victorian dangers such as the Burke and Hare murders in Scotland, and of course the Jack the Ripper events in London, Sweeny Todd played to contemporary fears and beliefs. Dark alleyways, death and blood, violent acts waiting to undo even the most vigilant person. Todd not only played on the media of the day, but overseas tales of cannibalism coming home through returning explorers and people responsible for expanding the British Empire from sunrise to sunset. Folks ending up being eaten in pies was just too much for most people. Though it was gruesome and bloody, it was not really popular with the majority of the public until well over a hundred years later.

Victorian Studies

Volume 50, Number 4, Summer 2008

E-ISSN: 1527-2052 Print ISSN: 0042-5222

Mack, Robert L. The Wonderful and Surprising History of Sweeney Todd: The Life and Times of an Urban Legend

French for "The Theater of the Big Puppet," the Grand Guignol was the original house of horrors! Many of the ideas that are found in monster and scary movies and stories today, originated in this French theater.

The Grand Guignol was famous for it's scary and bloody plots. A lot of the people who went to see the shows expected the same kind of thrill that we might get on a rollercoaster at a modern theme park, today.

The theater ran from about 1867, all the way until 1962! So, it was very popular. Even though the things that were brought up in the show were seen as gross and of bad taste in most of society, people went to shows at this theater looking to get scared and grossed out! England had a similar set of stories and theater called Penny Dreadfuls.

 You can find out more about Grand Guignol Theater in the Merriam-Webster on-line.